Wednesday Apr. 16, 2014

The week before Easter seemed like a good occasion to play some gospel music in class.  You heard "Soldier", "Amazing Grace"  and most of "Way Down in the Hole" featuring the Blind Boys of Alabama.

The 1S1P Koppen Climate Classification reports are about half done.  I hope to be able to return them all on Friday.

The 1S1P Regional Winds and Foucault Pendulum reports were collected today.  I'm going to try to get all the Rainbow, Mirage, and Green Flash reports graded first so it might be a while before you get today's report back.

There is a new 1S1P topic on Atmospheric Stability now available.  It is another worksheet rather than a report.  The completed worksheets are due next Monday.

All of the Scientific Paper and Book reports turned in last week have been graded.  Revised reports (if you want to do one, they aren't required) are due by Wed., Apr. 30.  Getting them in before that would be helpful to me.  Please return the original report with your revised report.

It's time for the Great Toilet Flushing Experiment/Optional Assignment.  You may have heard that water draining from a toilet or a sink spins one way in the N. Hemisphere and in the opposite direction in the S. Hemisphere.  That is something we can try to check out for ourselves.  Here's the assignment.


Here's a picture of the "Old Sow" whirlpool in the Bay of Fundy and apparently the largest whirlpool in the Western Hemisphere (source).

Next it was onto one of the main topics of the day: the development of a thermal circulation.

Differences in temperature like you might find between a coast and the ocean or between a city and the surrounding country side can create horizontal pressure differences. The horizontal pressure gradient can then produce a wind flow pattern known as a thermal circulation. 

When dealing with these usually small scale circulations, the pressure gradient force is often so much stronger than the Coriolis force that the Coriolis force can be ignored.

We will learn how thermal circulations develop and then apply to concept to the earth as a whole in order to understand large global scale pressure and wind patterns.  You really can't ignore the Coriolis force in a situation like that so the concept is not really applicable on that scale.  But much of what it predicts is actually found in the real world.  That's why we'll cover and study this topic. 

Thermal Circulations
You'll find this discussed on p. 131 in the photocopied Class Notes.

The figures below are more carefully drawn versions of what is in the ClassNotes.




The picture shows a sea coast.  There aren't any temperature differences yet in this picture (both the ocean and the land are shaded green), so the pressure at the ground and above the ground are the same over the land and over the ocean.




A beach will often become much warmer than the nearby ocean during the day (the sand gets hot enough that it is painful to walk on in bare feet). The ocean has higher specific heat, is much harder to warm, and won't change temperature much during the day.  The warm ground will warm the air above.  Pressure decreases more slowly as you move upward through warm low density air (that's something we covered early in the semester).  As you move from the ground to the level of the green line in the picture above pressure decreases 90 mb in the warm air and a little more, 100 mb, in the cooler denser air over the ocean.
Here's another way of arriving at the same result.

The layer of warm air on the left expands, pushing the 900 mb pressure level to a higher level than it would normally be found.  910 mb pressure from a little lower altitude moves in to take its place.

The temperature differences at the ground have created an upper level pressure gradient (pressure difference), higher pressure (910 mb) on the left and lower pressure (900 mb) on the right.  The resulting pressure gradient force (PGF) causes air to start to blow from left to right.

The upper level winds (which remove air from the left side of the picture and add it to the right) will then affect the surface pressure pattern.


The sea level pressure is determined by the weight of the air overhead.  Air leaving the left side of the picture will lower the surface pressure (from 1000 mb to 990 mb).  Adding air aloft to the right side of the picture will increase the surface pressure (from 1000 mb to 1010 mb).  Surface winds will start to blow from right to left.
You can complete the circulation loop by adding rising air above the surface low pressure at left and sinking air above the surface high at right.  The surface winds which blow from the ocean onto land are called a sea breeze (the name tells you where the winds come from).  Since this air is likely to be moist, cloud formation is likely when the air rises over the warm ground.  Rising air expands and cools.  If you cool moist air to its dew point, clouds form.

Here's a short cut that will allow you to quickly figure the directions of the winds in a thermal circulation without going through a long-winded development like we just done.  Just remember that

warm air rises 

Draw in a rising air arrow above the warm part of the picture, then complete the loop.

At night the ground cools more quickly than the ocean and becomes colder than the water (the water temperature didn't change at all in the picture below).  

What would you expect to find at night?  You don't see the word warm anywhere in the picture.  But the cool (green) ocean water is warmer than the cold (blue) land surface.  So draw the rising air arrow over the ocean and then complete the loop



The thermal circulation pattern has reversed direction.  Surface winds blow from the land out over the ocean.  This is referred to as a land breeze.
Here is an additional example of a thermal circulation. 



Cities are often warmer than the surrounding countryside, especially at night.  This is referred to as the urban heat island effect.  This difference in temperature can create a "country breeze."  This will sometimes carry pollutants from a factory or odors from a sewer treatment plant located outside the city back into town.


Here are a couple of additional examples that weren't mentioned in class
The Asian monsoon is a large scale circulation pattern and is much more complex than a simple thermal circulation.  However you can use the thermal circulation concept to get a general understanding of what to expect at different times of the year.  Before looking at that let's be clear about the meaning of the term monsoon.


Monsoon just refers to a seasonal change in the direction of the prevailing winds.  Most of the year in Arizona winds come from the west and are dry.  For 2 or 3 months in the summer winds come from the south and southeast.  This is when we get our summer thunderstorm season or summer monsoon.  The term monsoon is often used (incorrectly) to refer to the thunderstorms themselves.




In the summer land masses in India and Asia become warmer than the oceans nearby.  Surface low pressure forms over the land, moist winds blow from the ocean onshore, and very large amounts of rain can follow.  A map view (top view) is shown at left, a crossectional view is shown at right (it resembles a large sea breeze).



The winds change directions in the winter when the land becomes colder than the ocean.

You can also use the thermal circulation to understand some of the basic features of the El Nino phenomenon (you find a discussion of the El Nino on pps 135-139 in the photocopied Classnotes). 

First here is what conditions look like in the tropical Pacific Ocean in normal non-El Nino years (top and side views again)




Cold ocean currents along the west coasts of N. America and S. American normally converge at the equator and begin to flow westward (see top view above).  As the water travels westward it warms.  Some of the warmest sea surface waters on earth are normally found in the western Tropical Pacific (this is also where hurricanes are most frequent).  A temperature gradient becomes established between the W. and E. ends of the tropical Pacific. The crossectional view above shows the normal temperature and circulation pattern found in the equatorial Pacific Ocean.   You would find surface high pressure in the east and low pressure in the west.  Note that the wind circulation pattern is the same as the simple thermal circulation we studied above.

During a La Nina event, waters in the Eastern Pacific are even colder than normal.  This generally produces drier than normal conditions during the winter in the desert SW.  This was the case last winter.  You can read more about La Nina here.

Every few years El Nino conditions occur and the cold currents don't make it to the Equator.  Warm water is carried from the western Pacific to the eastern Pacific.  The temperature and pressure basically reverses itself.



Now surface high pressure is found in the west and surface low pressure and rising air is found in the E. Pacific (the reversal in the surface pressure pattern is referred to as the southern oscillation).  Indonesia and Australia often experience drought conditions (and devastating wildfires) during El Nino years.  In the desert SW we expect slightly wetter than normal conditions (perhaps 20% wetter than normal).  Wetter conditions are also found in California and in the SE US.

Here's a map showing the effects of El Nino and La Nina conditions on winter weather in N. America (source). 




OK back to material that was covered in class.
We are next going to use the thermal circulation idea to learn something about global scale pressure and wind patterns on the earth.  Ordinarily you couldn't apply a small scale phenomenon like a thermal circulation to the much larger global scale.  However if we make some simplifying assumptions, particularly if we assume that the earth doesn't rotate or only rotates slowly, we can ignore the Coriolis force and a thermal circulation would become established.

Some additional simplifications are also made and are listed below (p. 133 in the photocopied ClassNotes).  The figures are more carefully drawn versions of what was done in class.

Because the earth isn't tilted, the incoming sunlight shines on the earth most directly at the equator.  The equator will become hotter than the poles.  By allowing the earth to rotate slowly we spread this warmth out in a belt that circles the globe at the equator rather than concentrating it in a spot on the side of the earth facing the sun.  Because the earth is of uniform composition there aren't any temperature differences created between oceans and continents.

You can see the wind circulation pattern that would develop.  You'd find rising air at the equator (the "warm air rises" shortcut rule again).  Upper level winds would blow from equator toward the N and S Poles.  Winds would converge and sink at the poles.  Surface winds would blow from the poles toward the equator.  The term one cell just refers to the single complete loop in each hemisphere.

Next we will remove the assumption concerning the rotation of the earth.  We won't be able to ignore the Coriolis force now.





Here's what a computer would predict you would now see on the earth.  The temperature pattern remains the same and things are pretty much the same at the equator in the three cell and one cell models: surface low pressure and rising air.  At upper levels the winds begin to blow from the equator toward the poles.  Once headed toward the poles the upper level winds are deflected by the Coriolis force.  There end up being three closed loops in the northern and in the southern hemispheres.  There are surface belts of low pressure at the equator (the equatorial low) and at 60 degrees latitude (the subpolar low). There are belts of high pressure (the subtropical high) at 30 latitude and high pressure centers at the two poles (the polar highs).
We just had time to start to look at some of the 3-cell model surface features (pressure belts and winds) in a little more detail.  We're doing this because, even with the unrealistic assumptions of the 3-cell model, much of what is predicted is actually found on the earth.

Here's the region between 45 S and 45 N latitude viewed from above.  We didn't have time to complete the picture in class but I've put the complete version below.


There's a lot of information on this picture, but with a little study you should be able to start with a blank sheet of paper and reproduce this figure.  I would suggest starting at the equator.  You need to remember that there is a belt of low pressure found there, the equatorial low (pressure belt).  Then remember that the pressure belts alternate:  low pressure at the equator then belts of high pressure at 30 N and 30 S.

Let's start at 30 S.  Winds will begin to blow northward from High pressure at 30 S toward Low pressure at the equator (also southward toward low pressure at 60 S latitude).  Once the winds start to blow they will turn to the left because of the Coriolis force.  Up at 30 N winds will also blow southward toward the equator.  They are bent to the right (you need to turn the page upside down and look in the direction the winds are blowing).  These winds just north and south of the equator are the Trade Winds (northeasterly trade winds north of the equator and southeasterly trades south of the equator).  They converge at the equator and the air there rises (refer back to the crossectional view of the 3-cell model). This produces a band of clouds that you can often see at or near the equator on a satellite photograph.  If that link doesn't work try this one.

The Intertropical Convergence Zone or ITCZ is another name for the equatorial low pressure belt.  This region is also referred to as the doldrums because it is a region where surface winds are often weak.  Sailing ships would sometimes get stranded there hundreds of miles from land.  Fortunately it is a cloudy and rainy region so the sailors wouldn't run out of drinking water (they might well have run out of rum though).
  
Hurricanes form over warm ocean water in the subtropics between the equator and 30 latitude.  Because winds at these latitudes have a strong easterly component, hurricanes, at least early in their development, move from east to west.  Middle latitude storms found between 30 and 60 latitude, where the prevailing westerly wind belt is found, move from west to east.

You find sinking air, clear skies, and weak surface winds associated with the subtropical high pressure belt at 30 N and 30 S.  This is also known as the horse latitudes.  Sailing ships could become stranded there also.  Horses were apparently either thrown overboard (to conserve drinking water) or eaten if food supplies were running low (Wikipedia has a different explanation of the origin of the term "horse latitudes").  Some of the hottest and driest locations on earth are found near 30 latitude (Tucson is located at 32 N latitude, so we are strongly affected by the subtropical high pressure belt).

The winds to the north of 30 N and to the south of 30 S are called the "prevailing westerlies."  They blow from the SW in the northern hemisphere and from the NW in the southern hemisphere. The 30 S to 60 S latitude belt in the southern hemisphere is mostly ocean.  Because there is less friction over the oceans, the prevailing westerlies there can get strong, especially in the winter.  They are sometimes referred to as the "roaring 40s" or the "ferocious 50s" (the 40s and 50s refer to the latitude belt they are found in).




And just as you had a cloud chart (shown above) to try to learn before Quiz #3 we'll have a chart of 3-cell model surface pressures and winds (below) to learn before Quiz #4.  Most likely you will only have to worry about the features inside the dotted box below.