Tuesday Feb. 17, 2015

Music selected from the following list before class this morning: Copenhagen Philharmonic Symphony "Bolero";  Hot Club of San Francisco "Don't Panic", Jazz from the Tip; Black Prairie "Taraffa"; Naturally 7 Live in the Paris Metro "I Can Feel it Coming in the Air Tonight".

The Take Home Optional Assignment was collected today.  I won't be able to get that back to you before Thursday's quiz so I have posted some answers online.

The 1S1P reports on Carbon Dioxide have been graded and were returned in class today.  You can check to see whether a particular 1S1P topic has been graded and returned here.

I am hoping to have the Experiment #1 reports graded in time to return before the quiz on Thursday.

A reminder: Students in the 8 am section that normally attend the 9:30 class must take the quiz with their fellow Sect. 2 students at 8 am on Thursday this week.  That is to avoid overcrowding during the quiz in the 9:30 class.

A bunch of weather data has been plotted (using the station model notation) on the surface weather map in the figure below (p. 38 in the ClassNotes).  A couple of stormy regions have been circled in green.





Plotting the surface weather data on a map is just the beginning.  For example you really can't tell what is causing the cloudy weather with rain (the dot symbols are rain) and drizzle (the comma symbols) in the NE portion of the map above or the rain shower along the Gulf Coast.  Some additional analysis is needed. 

1st step in surface map analysis: draw in some contour lines to reveal the large scale pressure pattern
Pressure contours =  isobars
( note the word bar is in millibar, barometer, and now isobar )
Temperature contours = isotherms

A meteorologist would usually begin by drawing some contour lines of pressure (isobars) to map out the large scale pressure pattern.  We will look first at contour lines of temperature, they are a little easier to understand (the plotted data is easier to decode and temperature varies across the country in a more predictable way). 

Isotherms
Temperature contours (isotherms) are easier to plot.



Isotherms, temperature contour lines, are usually drawn at 10o F intervals. They do two things:

isotherms (1) connect points on the map with the same temperature
                      (2) separate regions warmer than a particular temperature
                      from regions colder than a particular temperature

The 40o F isotherm above passes through a city which is reporting a temperature of exactly 40o (Point A).  Mostly it goes between pairs of cities: one with a temperature warmer than 40o (41o at Point B) and the other colder than 40o (38o F at Point C).  The temperature pattern is also somewhat more predictable than the pressure pattern: temperatures generally decrease with increasing latitude: warmest temperatures are usually in the south, colder temperatures in the north.

Question #13 from the Optional Assignment is shown below at left (these figures weren't shown in class).  You were supposed to draw in 40 F and 50 F isotherms.  Colors can help you do this.  In the center picture below temperatures below 40 are colored blue, temperatures between 40 and 50 are green and temperatures in the 50s are colored yellow. 






The isotherms have been drawn in at right; not how the isotherms separate the colored bands.  Note how the 40 F isotherm goes through the 40 on the map.

Isobars
a little harder to draw because you have to be able to decode the pressure data


isobars (1) connect points on the map with equal pressure
                                              (2) separate regions of high pressure from regions with lower pressure
                                 and identify and locate centers of high and low pressure

Here's the same weather map with isobars drawn in.  Isobars are generally drawn at 4 mb intervals (above and below a starting value of 1000 mb). 

The 1008 mb isobar (highlighted in yellow) passes through a city at Point A where the pressure is exactly 1008.0 mb.  Most of the time the isobar will pass between two cities.  The 1008 mb isobar passes between cities with pressures of 1009.7 mb at Point B and 1006.8 mb at Point C.  You would expect to find 1008 mb somewhere in between those two cites, that is where the 1008 mb isobar goes.

The isobars separate regions of high and low pressure.  The pressure pattern is not as predictable as the isotherm map.  Low pressure is found on the eastern half of this map and high pressure in the west.  The pattern could just as easily have been reversed.

This site (from the American Meteorological Society) first shows surface weather observations by themselves (plotted using the station model notation) and then an analysis of the surface data like what we've just looked at.  There are links below each of the maps that will show you current surface weather data.

Here's a little practice (this figure wasn't shown in class).


A single isobar is shown.  Is it the 1000, 1002, 1004, 1006, or 1008 mb isobar? (you'll find the answer at the end of today's notes)

What can you begin to learn about the weather once you've mapped out the pressure pattern?

1a.  Surface centers of low pressure

We'll start with the large nearly circular centers of High and Low pressure.  Low pressure is drawn below.  These figures are more neatly drawn versions of what we did in class.





Air will start moving toward low pressure (like a rock sitting on a hillside that starts to roll downhill), then something called the Coriolis force will cause the wind to start to spin (I didn't mention the Coriolis force in class, we'll learn more about it later in the semester).

In the northern hemisphere winds spin in a counterclockwise (CCW) direction around surface low pressure centers.  The winds also spiral inward toward the center of the low, this is called convergence.  [winds spin clockwise around low pressure centers in the southern hemisphere but still spiral inward, don't worry about the southern hemisphere until later in the semester]


When the converging air reaches the center of the low it starts to rise.
Convergence causes air to rise (1 of 4 ways)
 rising air e-x-p-a-n-d-s (it moves into lower pressure surroundings at higher altitude) 
The expansion causes the air to cool
 If you cool moist air enough (to or below its dew point temperature) clouds can form

Convergence is 1 of 4 ways of causing air to rise (we'll learn what the rest are soon, and, actually, you already know what one of them is - warm air rises, that's called convection).  You often see cloudy skies and stormy weather associated with surface low pressure.

1b.  Surface centers of high pressure
Everything is pretty much the exact opposite in the case of surface high pressure.


Winds spin clockwise (counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere) and spiral outward.  The outward motion is called divergence.

Air sinks in the center of surface high pressure to replace the diverging air.  The sinking air is compressed and warms.  This keeps clouds from forming so clear skies are normally found with high pressure.

Clear skies doesn't necessarily mean warm weather, strong surface high pressure often forms when the air is very cold. 

Divergence causes air to sink
sinking air is compressed and warms
warming air keeps clouds from forming - clear skies


Here's a picture summarizing what we've learned so far.  It's a slightly different view of wind motions around surface highs and low that tries to combine all the key features in as simple a sketch as possible.






2.  Strong and weak pressure gradients
The pressure pattern will also tell you something about where you might expect to find fast or slow winds.  In this case we look for regions where the isobars are either closely spaced together or widely spaced.  Portions of the two figures that follow can be found on p. 40c in the ClassNotes.

A picture of a hill is shown above at left.  The map at upper right is a topographic map that depicts the hill (the numbers on the contour lines are altitude).  A center of high pressure on a weather map, the figure at the bottom, has the same overall appearance.  The numbers on the contours are different.  These are contours (isobars) of pressure values in millibars.

Closely spaced contours on a topographic map indicate a steep slope.  More widely spaced contours mean the slope is more gradual.  If you roll a rock downhill on a steep slope it will roll more quickly than if it is on a gradual slope.  A rock will always roll downhill, away from the summit in this case toward the outer edge of the topographic map.  Air will always start to move toward low pressure

On a weather map, closely spaced contours (isobars) means pressure is changing rapidly with distance.  This is known as a strong pressure gradient and produces fast winds (a 30 knot wind blowing from the SE is shown in the orange shaded region above).  Widely spaced isobars indicate a weaker pressure gradient and the winds would be slower (the 10 knot wind blowing from the NW in the figure).




Winds spin counterclockwise and spiral inward around low pressure centers.  The fastest winds are again found where the contour lines are close together and the pressure gradient is strongest.

Contour spacing
closely spaced isobars = strong pressure gradient (big change in pressure with distance) - fast winds
widely spaced isobars = weak pressure gradient (small change in pressure with distance) - slow winds





This figure is found at the bottom of p. 40 c in the photocopied ClassNotes.  You should be able to sketch in the direction of the wind at each of the three points and determine where the fastest and slowest winds would be found. (you'll find the answer at the end of today's notes).  Also see if you can figure out where the warmest and coldest air would be.



3.  Temperature patterns and fronts

The pressure pattern causes the wind to start to blow; the wind then can affect and change the temperature pattern.  The figure below shows the temperature pattern you would expect to see if the wind wasn't blowing at all or if the wind was just blowing straight from west to east.  The bands of different temperature are aligned parallel to the lines of latitude.  Temperature changes from south to north but not from west to east. 




This picture gets a little more interesting if you put centers of high or low pressure in the middle.




In the case of high pressure, the clockwise spinning winds move warm air to the north on the western side of the High.  The front edge of this northward moving air is shown with a dotted line (at Pt. W) in the picture above.  Cold air moves toward the south on the eastern side of the High (another dotted line at Pt. C).  The diverging winds also move the warm and cold air away from the center of the High.  Now you would experience a change in temperature if you traveled from west to east across the center of the picture. 

The transition from warm to cold along the boundaries (Pts. W and C) is spread out over a fairly long distance and is gradual.  This is because the winds around high pressure diverge and blow outward away from the center of high pressure.  There is also some mixing of the different temperature air along the boundaries.



Counterclockwise winds move cold air toward the south on the west side of the Low.  Warm air advances toward the north on the eastern side of the low.  This is just the opposite of what we saw with high pressure.

The converging winds in the case of low pressure will move the air masses of different temperature in toward the center of low pressure.  The transition zone between different temperature air gets squeezed and compressed.  The change from warm to cold occurs in a shorter distance and is sharper and more distinct.  Solid lines have been used to delineate the boundaries above. These sharper and more abrupt boundaries are called fronts.

 Warm and cold fronts, middle latitude storms (aka extratropical cyclones)



A cold front is drawn at the front edge of the southward moving mass of cold air on the west side of the Low.  Cold fronts are generally drawn in blue on a surface weather map.  The small triangular symbols on the side of the front identify it as a cold front and show what direction it is moving. 

A warm front (drawn in red with half circle symbols) is shown on the right hand side of the map at front edge of the northward moving mass of.  A warm front is usually drawn in red and has half circles on one side of the front to identify it and show its direction of motion.

The fronts are like spokes on a wheel.  The "spokes" will spin counterclockwise around the low pressure center (the axle).

Both types of fronts cause rising air motions.  Fronts are another way of causing air to rise.  That's important because rising air expands and cools.  If the air is moist and cools enough, clouds can form.

The storm system shown in the picture above (the Low together with the fronts) is referred to a middle latitude storm or an extra-tropical cyclone.  Extra-tropical means outside the tropics, cyclone means winds spinning around low pressure (tornadoes are sometimes called cyclones, so are hurricanes).  These storms form at middle latitudes because that is where air masses coming from the polar regions to the north and the more tropical regions to the south can collide.

Large storms that form in the tropics (where this mostly just warm air) are called tropical cyclones or, in our part of the world, hurricanes. 

Fronts are another way of causing air to rise.    There are a total of 4 processes that cause air to rise. They are all sketched below. 




1. Convergence, winds spiraling in toward centers of low pressure was mentioned earlier in class.

2. Fronts we've just learned cause air to rise.  The two fronts are shown in crossection above.  You'll better understand what is going on here after class on Thursday. 

3. Sunlight striking and being absorbed at the ground warms the ground.  Air in contact with the ground warms and becomes buoyant.  If it is warm enough (low enough density) it will float upward on its own.  This is called free convection.

4. Finally when winds encounter a mountain they must move upward and over the mountain.  You might expect to see clouds and precipitation on the upwind side of the mountain because that is where the air is rising and cooling.  You'll sometimes find a "rainshadow" (lack of rain) on the dry downslope side of a mountain.


Here are answers to the two questions embedded in today's notes



Pressures lower than 1002 mb are colored purple.  Pressures between 1002 and 1004 mb are blue.  Pressures between 1004 and 1006 mb are green and pressures greater than 1006 mb are red.  The isobar appearing in the question is highlighted yellow and is the 1004 mb isobar.  The 1002 mb and 1006 mb isobars have also been drawn in (because isobars are drawn at 4 mb intervals starting at 1000 mb, the 1002 mb and 1006 mb isobars wouldn't normally be drawn on a map)







Winds from the NW at 20 knots at Point #1, SE winds at 30 knots at Point #2, and NW winds at 10 knots at Point #3.
The southerly winds in the middle of the picture at Point #2 would probably be the warmest.  You would find colder air coming from the north at Points #2 and #3.