The next several figures show measurements of fair weather conductivity, electric field, and current density made during a field experiment in 1978 in Wyoming.  Simultaneous measurements were made with a variety of different instruments from different research groups.  Instruments were carried up to about 30 km altitude by balloon and measurements were made on the ascent and often during the descent.  Here's a link to the full article (pdf file).

The list below gives you an idea of the electrical parameters that were measured and the various types of sensors that were used.


Measurements of conductivity versus altitude made on two different days are shown in two graphs below.

Conductivity values range from about 5 x 10-14 mhos/m at 2 km or so above the ground to about 1000 times higher near 30 km.  The conductivity values are from just the positively charged small ions.  The notation "GC" in the figure refers to "Gerdien Condenser."  The cylindrical capacitor discussed in the last lecture would be an example of a Gerdien condenser type instrument.  Conductivity was estimated using the Isignal/V slope method described in our last lecture (σ is used in the article instead of λ).


All of the measurements are in good agreement with the exccption of the relaxation time method.  This is just the decay time constant we derived in a previous lecture.



A second set of conductivity measurements.  These include both positive and negative small ions.

The next two plots show measurements of electric field versus altitude.



E field values decrease from a few 10s of volts/meter 2 or 3 km above the ground to less than 1 V/m near 30 km (the x-axis values are, from left to right, 0.1, 1.0, 10 and 100 V/m).


The next plot shows the vertical profile of current density, Jz.  Measurements from two different days are plotted together.



Note first of all that current density does stays fairly constant with altitude something we expect under steady state conditions (the x-axis labels, from left to right, are 0.1, 1.0 and 10 pA/m2).  The yellow curve is the product of electric field and positive small ion conductivity, not a measurement of Jz.  You would expect the measured Jz (which includes both positive and negative charge carriers) to to be roughly twice the positive conductivity times electric field.  The apparent explanation for this descrepancy is shown below (though this seems like too simple a mistake for the researchers to have made):


One of the Jz sensors consisted of two conducting hemispheres insulated from each other.  Charge is induced on the two hemispheres by the ambient electric field.  The figure above shows that the sensor is only capturing half of the charge carries in the atmosphere and therefore only measuring half of the current density, Jz.  There might also be some uncertainty about the effective crossectional area of the current sensor.

The problem appears to have been corrected in the plot below which is a reanalysis of the Wyoming data.  The plotted points are conductivity (positive and negative polarity) times measured electric field.  The plotted values cluster around a value of about 2.5 pA/m2 (note again how uniform Jz is with altitude).  Measured Jz was about twice this, about 5.1 pA/m2.


The next graph summarizes measurements from a different field experiment conducted in the North Atlantic ocean.

The plot shows vertical profiles of E field (highlighted in blue), measured positive and negative conductivities (green), and the calculated current density (in yellow, the product of positive and negative conductivity and measured electric field).  The calculated current density values are clustered around 1.25 pA/m2, the measured total current density was about twice that, 2.35 pA/m2.

Both figures are from W. Gringel, J.M. Rosen, ande D.J. Hofmann, "Electrical Structure from 0 to 30 km Kilometers," Ch. 12 in The Earth's Electrical Environment, National Academy Press, 1986. (available online at www.nap.edu/books/0309036801/html/)

Now the main part of today's class, we'll start to look at how small ions are created.  Small ions are the mobile charge carriers that give the atmosphere it's conductivity.  First something must ionize air molecules



Then water vapor molecules cluster around the ions to create "small ions."  Water molecules have a dipole structure as shown below. 



The oxygen atom carries excess negative charge and the hydrogen atoms positive charge.  Because of this the water vapor molecules orient themselves differently around the oxygen and nitrogen ions.  Conceptually this would look like


More water vapor molecules are able to surround the positive ions so they are bigger and have slightly lower electrical mobility than the negative small ions.

The next figure summarizes the processes that ionize air.

Radioactive materials in the ground emit alpha and beta particles, and gamma rays.  Alpha particles (i.e. a helium nucleus consisting two protons and two neutrons) are a strong source of ionization but only in the first few cm above the ground.  Beta particles (electrons) ionize air in a layer a few meters thick.  The effects of gamma radiation extend of 100s of meters.  Cosmic rays are the dominant source of ionization over the ocean and above 1 km over land.

The table below gives an idea of how far these different types of radiation can travel above the ground and also typical ionization rates (ip stands for "ion pairs"). (from Chapter 11 in "The Earth's Electrical Environment," National Academy of Sciences, 1986  )

emission type
 range of travel
 ionization rate [ ip/(cm3 sec) ]
alpha particles
 only a few cm above the ground
 not well known
beta particles
 a few meters above the ground
 0.1 to 10
gamma rays
 100s of meters above the ground
1 to 6
radon
 depends on atmospheric conditions
 1 to 20 at 1-2 m above ground
cosmic rays
 1 to 2 ip/(cm3 sec) near the ground


In addition to being a source of atmospheric ionization, radon is a signficant health hazard and is the 2nd leading cause of lung cancer after cigarettes.  Here are links to articles concerning radon from the World Health Organization, Wikipedia, and the Environmental Protection Agency.

The following table shows a portion of the decay series that ultimately yield isotopes of radon.

                 



all of the Neptunium in the soil has decayed away..




Rn-222, Rn-219,
and & Rn-220
are sometimes
referred to as
"radon", "actinon",
and "thoron" respectively.
All three are also
known as
"emanatium."






Because of its relatively short half like, all the Neptunium in the ground has decayed away.  Two isotopes of radon (Rn-222 and Rn-220) have half lives long enough to be able to diffuse out of the soil and into the air.

The article from the World Health Organization gives a typical outdoor radon concentration of 5 to 15 Becquerels/m3 (Bq/m3  -  1 Becquerel is one disintegration per second ).  We can do a calculation to see what this implies in terms of radon concentration and ion pair production rate.

The rate at which a radioactive material decays is described by the following equation

(so far in this course we have used λ to represent linear charge density, atmospheric conductivity, and now decay constant).  We can solve the equation above to give

It is easy to relate the half life, t1/2, and the decay constant λ

The Rn-222 isotope has a half-life of 3.8 days.


Now that we know the decay constant we'll substitute back into the decay rate equation to determine the radon concentration needed to produce an average outdoors decay rate of 10 Bq/m3.



We know the decay constant and have a typical Rn concentration.  Next we can estimate the ionization rate caused by radon.  We need to know how much energy is contained by the α-particles emitted by radon and the energy needed to ionize air.


We can divide these two numbers to determine the number of ion pairs produced by each distintegration.  Then we multiply by the Rn concentration and the decay constant (which give the decay rate) to determine the ionization rate.



Radon gas decays into solid particles of polonium and lead.  These can attach to dust particles which are then inhaled and trapped in the lungs.  Since the decay products are themselves radioactive, long term exposure can ultimately lead to lung cancer.  Radon is apparently the 2nd leading cause of lung cancer in the US after cigarette smoking.

Radon concentration indoors can build to levels that are much higher than normally found outdoors.  An extreme case is mentioned below.