Monday Sept. 19, 2011
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A song from Ziggy Marley ("Dragonfly") to get a very busy week started.  The second song was "Better Man" from Keb' Mo'.

The Expt. #1 reports were collected today.  You can expect to get them back next week sometime.  Experiment #2 materials will be handed out before (and maybe after) class on Friday.

The 1S1P Bonus report on Radon was also due today.

Another important piece of information on a surface map is the time the observations were collected.  Time on a surface map is converted to a universally agreed upon time zone called Universal Time (or Greenwich Mean Time, or Zulu time).  That is the time at 0 degrees longitude, the Prime Meridian. There is a 7 hour time zone difference between Tucson and Universal Time (this never changes because Tucson stays on Mountain Standard Time year round).  You must add 7 hours to the time in Tucson to obtain Universal Time.

Here are several examples of conversions between MST and UT (not done in class)

to convert from MST (Mountain Standard Time) to UT (Universal Time)
10:20 am MST:
add the 7 hour time zone correction --->   10:20 + 7:00 = 17:20 UT (5:20 pm in Greenwich)

2:30 pm MST:
first convert to the 24 hour clock by adding 12 hours   2:30 pm MST + 12:00 = 14:30 MST
add the 7 hour time zone correction --->  14:30 + 7:00 = 21:30 UT (7:30 pm in England)

7:45 pm MST:
convert to the 24 hour clock by adding 12 hours   7:45 pm MST + 12:00 = 19:45 MST
add the 7 hour time zone correction ---> 19:45 + 7:00 = 26:45 UT
since this is greater than 24:00 (past midnight) we'll subtract 24 hours   26:45 UT - 24:00 = 02:45 am the next day

to convert from UT to MST
18Z:
subtract the 7 hour time zone correction ---> 18:00 - 7:00 = 11:00 am MST

02Z:
if we subtract the 7 hour time zone correction we will get a negative number. 
We will add 24:00 to 02:00 UT then subtract 7 hours   02:00 + 24:00 = 26:00
26:00 - 7:00 = 19:00 MST on the previous day
2 hours past midnight in Greenwich is 7 pm the previous day in Tucson

A bunch of weather data has been plotted (using the station model notation) on a surface weather map in the figure below (p. 38 in the ClassNotes). 



Plotting the surface weather data on a map is just the beginning.  For example you really can't tell what is causing the cloudy weather with rain (the dot symbols are rain) and drizzle (the comma symbols) in the NE portion of the map above or the rain shower along the Gulf Coast.  Some additional analysis is needed.  A meteorologist would usually begin by drawing some contour lines of pressure (isobars) to map out the large scale pressure pattern.  We will look first at contour lines of temperature, they are a little easier to understand (the plotted data is easier to decode and temperature varies across the country in a more predictable way).


Isotherms, temperature contour lines, are usually drawn at 10o F intervals. They do two things: (1) connect points on the map that all have the same temperature, and (2) separate regions that are warmer than a particular temperature from regions that are colder.  The 40o F isotherm above passes through a city which is reporting a temperature of exactly 40o (Point A).  Mostly it goes between pairs of cities: one with a temperature warmer than 40o (41o at Point B) and the other colder than 40o (38o F at Point C).  Temperatures generally decrease with increasing latitude: warmest temperatures are usually in the south, colder temperatures in the north.


Now the same data with isobars drawn in.  Again they separate regions with pressure higher than a particular value from regions with pressures lower than that value.    Isobars are generally drawn at 4 mb intervals.  Isobars also connect points on the map with the same pressure.  The 1008 mb isobar (highlighted in yellow) passes through a city at Point A where the pressure is exactly 1008.0 mb.  Most of the time the isobar will pass between two cities.  The 1008 mb isobar passes between cities with pressures of 1009.7 mb at Point B and 1006.8 mb at Point C.  You would expect to find 1008 mb somewhere in between those two cites, that is where the 1008 mb isobar goes.

The pressure pattern is not as predictable as the isotherm map.  Low pressure is found on the eastern half of this map and high pressure in the west.  The pattern could just as easily have been reversed.


Here's a little practice (this figure wasn't shown in class).  Is this the 1000, 1002, 1004, 1006, or 1008 mb isobar? (you'll find the answer at the end of today's notes)

Just locating closed centers of high and low pressure will already tell you a lot about the weather that is occurring in their vicinity.
1.
We'll start with the large nearly circular centers of High and Low pressure.  Low pressure is drawn below.  These figures are more neatly drawn versions of what we did in class.



Air will start moving toward low pressure (like a rock sitting on a hillside that starts to roll downhill), then something called the Coriolis force will cause the wind to start to spin (we'll learn more about the Coriolis force later in the semester). In the northern hemisphere winds spin in a counterclockwise (CCW) direction around surface low pressure centers.  The winds also spiral inward toward the center of the low, this is called convergence.  [winds spin clockwise around low pressure centers in the southern hemisphere but still spiral inward, don't worry about the southern hemisphere until later in the semester]


When the converging air reaches the center of the low it starts to rise.  Rising air expands (because it is moving into lower pressure surroundings at higher altitude), the expansion causes it to cool.  If the air is moist and it is cooled enough (to or below the dew point temperature) clouds will form and may then begin to rain or snow.  Convergence is 1 of 4 ways of causing air to rise (we'll learn what the rest are soon, and, actually, you already know what one of them is).  You often see cloudy skies and stormy weather associated with surface low pressure.

Everything is pretty much the exact opposite in the case of surface high pressure.


Winds spin clockwise (counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere) and spiral outward.  The outward motion is called divergence.

Air sinks in the center of surface high pressure to replace the diverging air.  The sinking air is compressed and warms.  This keeps clouds from forming so clear skies are normally found with high pressure.

Clear skies doesn't necessarily mean warm weather, strong surface high pressure often forms when the air is very cold.  Also (something not mentioned in class) sinking air motions can produce a subsidence inversion layer.  An inversion layer, you might remember, is a stable layer.  Subsidence inversions can persist for several days and trap pollutants in air near the ground.  A subsidence inversion probably contributed to the severity of the Great London Smog of 1952. 

Here's a picture summarizing what we've learned so far.  It's a slightly different view of wind motions around surface highs and low and wasn't shown in class.




2.
The pressure pattern will also tell you something about where you might expect to find fast or slow winds.  In this case we look for regions where the isobars are either closely spaced together or widely spaced.  The figures below are much more carefully drawn versions of what was done in class.


Closely spaced contours means pressure is changing rapidly with distance.  This is known as a strong pressure gradient and produces fast winds.  It is analogous to a steep slope on a hillside.  If you trip walking on a hill, you will roll rapidly down a steep hillside, more slowly down a gradual slope.

The winds around a high pressure center are shown above using both the station model notation and arrows. The winds are spinning clockwise and spiraling outward slightly.  Note the different wind speeds (25 knots and 10 knots plotted using the station model notation)



Winds spin counterclockwise and spiral inward around low pressure centers.  The fastest winds are again found where the pressure gradient is strongest.


This figure is found at the bottom of p. 40 c in the photocopied ClassNotes.  You should be able to sketch in the direction of the wind at each of the three points and determine where the fastest and slowest winds would be found. (you'll find the answer below).

Here's the answer to the question earlier about the value of the isobar drawn on a surface map.



Pressures lower than 1002 mb are colored purple.  Pressures between 1002 and 1004 mb are blue.  Pressures between 1004 and 1006 mb are green and pressures greater than 1006 mb are red.  The isobar appearing in the question is highlighted yellow and is the 1004 mb isobar.  The 1002 mb and 1006 mb isobars have also been drawn in.

And here's the answer to the question about wind directions and wind speeds.


The winds are blowing from the NNW at Points 1 and 3.  The winds are blowing from the SSE at Point 2.  The fastest winds (30 knots) are found at Point 2 because that is where the isobars are closest together (strongest pressure gradient).  The slowest winds (10 knots) are at Point 3.  Notice also how the wind direction can affect the temperature pattern.  The winds at Point 2 are coming from the south and are probably warmer than the winds coming from the north at Points 1 & 3.  We'll be looking at this in more detail on Friday after Wednesday's quiz.